This article deals with the problem of the multifunctional role of amber jewellery in the traditional culture of villages in the regions of Pomerania, Kashubia, Kurpie and Kujawy at the turn of the 19th century. One can distinguish many different functions of amber jewellery (prestige, economic, social, aesthetic, magical and protective, and votive). They are all closely connected with one another and it is impossible to determine which is the most important. This paper points out the apotropaic significance of amber. The analysed material clearly suggests that amber jewellery in folk beliefs was much more than just an adornment - a fact further exemplified by folk legends and tales.
Amber jewellery has, for centuries, been an important and valued addition to human and in particular women's attire. It has been used in various forms by rich and poor alike, both in towns and villages, on everyday as well as on festive occasions; by people who used only very simple tools as well as by those acquainted with more advanced technologies.
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A STRING OF AMBER BEADS WITH HOLY MEDALIONS |
As archaeologists note, the earliest pieces of amber jewellery were not exclusively decorative items but also had magical, ritual and social applications. These functions - long-forgotten in urban environments - have been preserved to this day in certain areas of the countryside. This paper attempts to present and analyse the problem of the multifunctional role of amber jewellery in the traditional folk culture of the Kashubia, Kurpie, Pomerania and Kujawy regions. This topic has rarely been mentioned in Polish ethnographic literature, as the issue of jewellery has usually taken second place to detailed descriptions of the cut characteristic of a given region or to the subject of folk costume decoration. With the exception of few articles describing amber jewellery mainly from the regions of Kurpie and Kashubia there is no monograph dealing with this question. Materials for studies of this problem are to be found scattered among various ethnographic publications and these mostly give purely descriptive data and short notes which rarely discuss the functions and symbolic meaning of jewellery.
Moreover, even though folk costume has often been one of the favourite topics of ethnographic exhibitions, there have never been any exhibitions in Polish museums devoted exclusively to amber folk jewellery, which no doubt has always been an important and meaningful part of folk costume, not only in the north of Poland but also in the Lowicz area and other parts of the country. For example, as Oscar KOLBERG notes, in the second half of the 19th century strings of" [..4 yellow, brown and reddish [. amber beads were also worn in the Wielkopolska region (Pleszew district) alongside beads made of natural coral.
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THE PRINCESS OF BRESC NECKLACE WITH FACET CUT |
I would like this article to be just the first step in my future explorations of the meaning and functions of amber in Polish folk culture. Some of the authors and sources cited in this paper have never previously been mentioned, even in very detailed bibliographies of works on Baltic amber, and I hope those interested in this topic will find these citations useful. Adopting the ethnological approach to cultural traits as a means of communication, attire, including folk costume and jewellery, can be viewed as a meaningful symbol in a complex cultural system stressed the importance of context for an adequate understanding of the role of a single element of costume, noting that the meaning of the same element in various contexts can be completely different. Thus, the same element may symbolize different values and have different functions. Among the varied functions of peasant amber jewellery.
I would like to distinguish six major ones:
1) prestige - amber jewellery as a manifestation of wealth;
2) commercial value - amber jewellery as an investment (accumulation of wealth, such as wedding gifts of amber beads, for example) or used instead of money;
3) social significance - amber jewellery as a sign of social status (brides' necklaces) or emotional attachment;
4) aesthetic value amber jewellery as an adornment;
5) magical and protective power - amber jewellery used in magic and folk medicine;
6) votive use - amber jewellery as an offering to the Virgin Mary and saints.
All of the above functions are closely related to one another and they often overlap. Thus, it would be impossible to determine the most important one. For example, amber beads were often purposely strung onto red thread to enhance their natural beauty and colour but, at the same time, also to strengthen their protective power through the use of apotropaic red colour. In this paper I would like to pay special attention to the magical and protective function of amber jewellery.
Commercial value and prestige
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MAN'S NECKLACE MADE OF CYLINDRICAL ELEMENTS (XVII CENTURY) |
The quantity and quality of jewellery used as part of a costume, and particularly of one used for a festive occasion, was a manifestation of a person's affluence and social position in folk cultures (and indeed other circles) all over Poland. The most affluent peasants owned items of jewellery, the total value of which often equalled that of more than several heads of cattle. mber was generally referred to as a "stone" or "precious stone" in traditional Polish cultures. It was even termed a "yellow stone" in the folk dialects of the Kashubia and Kociewie regions.
Amber was considered to be of great value and a sign of affluence classed together with natural coral, pearls and diamonds). Sometimes it was even compared to gold as this Kurpie proverb demonstrates: "Amber is just as good if you do not have gold. Amber is mentioned in folklore as a desirable object, which one would search and even steal). "Amber vessels" used during a edding reception, and mentioned in a popular Kurpie wedding song, were yet another symbol of wealth and good luck.
The most valued kind of amber jewellery were beads, commonly worn by peasant women in the 19th century, but already well-known much). Because of their commercial value and prestige, as well as the protective power amber beads were believed to posses, they were an obligatory part of festive apparel, especially that worn for a wedding. Poorer girls would take on additional seasonal work to earn enough money to buy a necklace for their wedding or other festive occasion. In some villages, in order to be allowed to perform an honorary function in church ceremonies, girls had to wear a real amber necklace). When the worse came to the worst and there was no way a woman could afford an amber necklace, she would have tried to get one made of glass beads that resembled real amber as closely as possible. Later on, during the first years of this century, these glass beads became even more fashionable than the older ones made of amber. To increase their prestige and commercial value further still, sometimes silver or even golden coins or medallions were attached to the beads. I think we could agree that the more important functions of different objects are usually reflected in language. Thus, among the different categories of amber distinguished by inhabitants of the Kurpie region we find names such as "dowry" amber. These were often (though not always) amber wedding necklaces prepared by a mother for her daughter. We also find names such as "currency" or "tax" amber because small pieces of the resin and single beads were sometimes used instead of money, especially in times of unrest, such as periods of warfare and during post-war years.
Social significance
Wedding rings, already recognized in Rome as a symbol of marriage, were not used in Polish villages until the beginning of the 20th century. Young men however, sometimes gave Amber rings to girls as a token of affection, especially in the period following the First World War. Another manifestation of love or devotion were amber necklaces, which craftsmen would bring their sweethearts or sisters from their trips to Gdansk. This is probably how amber beads became fashionable in Lowicz costumes at the end of the 19th century. A string of amber beads was even sometimes used in the distant Tatra Mountains region as a gift for a fiancée. When talking about the social significance of amber jewellery we have to mention special "mourning" black amber beads known from the Kurpie region. These were not, however, usually made of real amber as black amber is very rare indeed The well-known Kashubian proverb "black amber bad luck" (Kashubian bursztyn czarny, szcz~ce marne' was probably associated with the custom of using black amber beads as a symbol of mourning.
Aesthetic value
The notion of beauty is often influenced by fashion and tends to change fairly often. The aesthetic value of amber jewellery is most evident in the numerous strings of small beads, which became fashionable in the Kurpie region at the beginning of this century. Being a relatively cheap product, their commercial worth and value as prestigious items was much reduced, as was their magical power. At about the same time it became fashionable in certain parts of Poland (especially in the Rzesz6w and Lublin regions) to wear necklaces made of strings of beads of different kinds, i.e. natural coral, amber, glass, etc., which were all put together to create a multicoloured composition . Nevertheless, we can still see how perceptive and sensitive to the beauty of their "burning stone" natives of the Kurpie region were. As noted by Adam), a keen scholar of their culture, they gave amber many different names according to its degree of transparency, its colour and form. Some of the names are quite poetic, e.g. "feathery" (Polish pierzasty), "foamy" (Polish piankowy), "glittering" (Polish mieniqcy si~ or "nebular" (Polish obloczkowaty). Traditionally, only the best kind of amber, called "a gem" (Polish cacko), was used for necklaces. This amber is transparent with reddish overtones and is considered to be the most beautiful of all varieties. The beauty of amber is pointed out by comparing it to the shining eyes of a beloved girl who, according to the Kurpie saying, has "eyes like amber.
Magical and protective powers
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AMBER ROSARY XIX CENTURY |
Red and yellow gems are considered to be "warm"and a good protection against evil spirits all over the world.The apotropaic significance of amber jewellery has always been very strong. As amber is often harvested from the sea it is associated with fertility, life and catharsis all of which water is symbolic of. This symbolic significance is particularly evident in folklore. The most popular wedding song in the Kurpie region states: "A dajciez jej na burstyny; coby miala styry syny", which in free translation into English reads: "Give her money for an amber necklace so she may have four sons". Other versions of this song, recorded by ethnographers in the regions of Podlasie, Lublin, and Lowicz, mention "beautiful sons", whilst in the Mazovian region reference is made to "only sons", with "daughters and sons" being cited in a Lowicz folk song. Amber was already associated with fertility in the 16th century, as it was believed that drinking water in which amber had been soaked for three days made child delivery quick and easy. Until recently it was believed in the Kurpie region that inhaling amber incense would have the same effect). In Kashubia wearing a piece of amber was believed to protect young girls from sterility. As is often the case with magic, amber was also believed to help in a contrary situation, i.e. to prove a girl's chastity. If a girl who had lost her virginity drank a cup of water in which an amber nodule had been soaked, she would not be able to keep the liquid down. "A virgin would not be bothered by that" states an old adage. These last beliefs are an example of amber serving a "cathartic" role and are also known from 19th-century Pomeranian folklore
Another example which shows that amber has always generally been associated in Polish culture with "purity", in both the physical and spiritual sense of the word, is the maxim "pure as amber. This belief is expressed in the Kurpie folk legend, claiming that amber came into being at the time of the deluge and was originally made of human tears (13oth tears and flooding are symbols of catharsis in themselves), and that the more innocent and good the person shedding the tears, the clearer the amber which was created from them. Because of their "cathartic" power amber beads, earrings and pins also helped, according to Kujaw beliefs, to expel "bad juices" and all kinds of illnesses from the body .
Another common belief in the Kujawy region was that amber beads also "protected" a women's breast against the evil eye, curses, illness and all evil forces. Some kinds of amber were even called "healing" (Polish leczniczy) or "charlatan's" (Polish znachorski) amber. Back in the 16th century amber was believed to "rejoice the heart" and "feed the soul". Drinking water in which a piece of amber had been soaked for three days helped to stop bleeding and alleviate any kind of. We find that the same convictions existed in 19th-century Pomeranian folklore. Even in the 20th century amber necklaces were valued among the natives of the Kurpie region as a safeguard against headaches The tenet that amber relieves headaches was widespread in Pomerania during the 19th century, but was also adhered to in the 1960s in the regions of Wielkopolska and Kashubia and was upheld as late as the year 1984 in the Zamos'c' district.
In the 16th century, inhaling amber fumes was advocated as a remedy for epilepsy. This belief survived in Kurpie in a slightly altered form - an amber pendant being believed to protect babies against convulsions. Powdered amber mixed with powdered pearls, emeralds, natural coral and oak mistletoe, which was then added to thin gold leaf, was also believed to help cure epilepsy. Amber in different forms was also used to combat tiredness, asthma, influenza, rheumatism and to reduce enlarged thyroid glands. In the Konin district peasants wore amber beads to protect themselves against jaundice .In the districts of Zamos'c' and Kurpie amber was believed to be helpful in treating eye complaints whilst in Wielkopolska it was considered to help cure ear problems and tuberculosis. In the Kurpie region it was also considered a good remedy for lung diseases and runny noses. As we can see, amber used to be utilized extensively in popular medicine and was even proclaimed to be one of the six most effective medications In the 16th century amber kept its owner safe from black magic it cast out devils and kept snakes away (which is understandable if we take into consideration that the devil was often represented in Christian culture as a snake). There was a widespread belief that an eagle always puts a piece of amber in its nest to protect it from snakes. During the 19th century, in the regions of Wielkopolska and Kujawy, lumps of amber were blessed in church on the Epiphany and then used as incense. On Midsummer's Night (Polish Noc s'wi~tojan'ska 23/24 June: the shortest night of the year, which used to be a great holiday in Slavic folk culture but also a day of extraordinary activity of evil forces) people incensed their houses and cow-sheds to cast out evil spirits and so that witches would not harm their livestock. Similar beliefs were noted in the Gniezno district . This is probably why, in the 16th century, amber fumes were believed to help guard against thunder and abate storms raised by evil spirits. In 19th-century sources we find an account relating how people inhabiting the Baltic shore would throw lumps of amber into a rough sea in order to calm it
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AN 'OCTAVO' NECKLACE FROM THE ROMAN PERIOD |
. Three strings of amber beads (three being a magical, lucky number) were used to adorn a woman's festive costume in the Kurpie region and particularly a bride's outfit. Amber necklaces had special magic powers, especially if they included a pendant in the form of little axe or dart attached in the middle of a short string of smaller beads tied to the longest string. Later on, under the Influence of Christianity, the pendants changed their form to that of sacred medallions out the heart-shaped pendant on which a figurine of the crucified Christ was carved still very much resembled the shape of a dart. If an amber wedding necklace was to bring good luck it had to have a special bead in the middle, bigger than all the others and containing inclusions.Amber wedding necklaces were also popular in the Pyrzyce region Amber was further believed to bring good luck in hunting, which is why hunters from Kurpie ordered amber buckles that they attached to their huts together with a red ribbon - another universal symbol of life and good fortune.
Votive use
Amber beads were used in Europe as votive offerings when laying the foundations of a house, in order to ensure the successful completion of its building, as early as the Neolithic period). The votive function of amber in 19th-century Polish folk culture manifested itself in two different ways. Firstly, lumps of amber were burned as incense in churches, and secondly, strings of amber beads were used to decorate icons and altars. Burning amber in a church as incense (which is widely practised throughout Poland to this day) probably further emphasized its aforementioned magical "purifying" properties. Usually, the worst variety of amber (called "church" amber in the Kurpie region) was burned, but quite often peasant women would give their necklaces or individual beads as a church offering to be used as incense during holidays and particularly important religious ceremonies.
A visit to any Polish sanctuary, or quite often even a minor church, will confirm that strings of amber beads are frequently used as votive gifts to the Virgin Mary or saints. In the Chapel of Our Lady of Czestochowa - Poland's foremost sanctuary - there are hundreds of strings of amber beads of all shapes and colours hanging to the left and right of the Black Madonna icon. People from all over Poland have left these offerings at the sanctuary over the last few hundred years as a sign of gratitude. Amber, coral and pearls have been used to make special altar coverings and a decorative "dress" for the icon. As CHETNIK noted (1973,194), a large statue of the Madonna in the parish church of Czarnia (Kurpie region, near Ostroleka) had an enormous string of amber beads twisted several times around her neck. Instead of offering necklaces to their local place of worship, the parish women of Maly Plock near Lomza made an interesting modification to this custom by presenting their church with two spectacular chandeliers made of amber beads. Unfortunately, both were lost during the First World War The analysed material clearly shows that amber jewellery in folk beliefs was much more than just an adornment. Have these beliefs really been forgotten nowadays? Recently, collecting materials for this paper I talked to my colleague from another museum and she mentioned that she wears an amber bracelet every day as it: "helps her body to function better". There are many people who share the belief that wearing amber jewellery positively influences their vital energies. Different kinds of amber drops or mixtures are still in use in conventional and alternative medicine, and are increasingly widely applied as components of environmentally friendly cosmetics, which are so fashionable these days.
by Joanna DANKOWSKA
